a cell that has only one set of chromosomes and thus, one set of genes is said to be what?

Number of sets of chromosomes in a cell

A haploid set that consists of a single complete set of chromosomes (equal to the monoploid set), as shown in the flick in a higher place, must vest to a diploid species. If a haploid set consists of two sets, information technology must exist of a tetraploid (four sets) species.^[1]

Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair, which chromosomes naturally exist every bit. Somatic cells, tissues, and individual organisms tin be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes nowadays (the "ploidy level"): monoploid (1 gear up), diploid (2 sets), triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid ^[2] or septaploid ^[three] (vii sets), etc. The generic term polyploid is often used to describe cells with three or more chromosome sets.^{[4] [5]}

Virtually all sexually reproducing organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life bike. Half of all known plant genera incorporate polyploid species, and about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid.^[6] Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the aforementioned species (as in the social insects), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body existence diploid (as in the mammalian liver). For many organisms, particularly plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of speciation. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal.^[7] There is, notwithstanding, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization.^{[8] [9]}

Humans are diploid organisms, usually conveying 2 consummate sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: ii copies of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of the 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans ordinarily accept. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23 homologous pairs, providing a total complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the chromosome number or chromosome complement. The number of chromosomes plant in a single complete set of chromosomes is chosen the monoploid number (ten). The haploid number (n) refers to the full number of chromosomes constitute in a gamete (a sperm or egg cell produced past meiosis in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is dissever in half to class haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing i prepare of 23 chromosomes) during fertilization, the resulting zygote again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: ii sets of 23 chromosomes. Euploidy and aneuploidy depict having a number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having whatsoever other number, respectively. For example, a person with Turner syndrome may be missing one sexual activity chromosome (10 or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,Xx) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45.

Etymology [edit]

The term ploidy is a dorsum-formation from haploidy and diploidy. "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, "-fold") and -ειδής (-eidḗs), from εἶδος (eîdos, "class, likeness").^[a] The principal meaning of the Greek word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single",^[10] from ἁ- (ha-, "i, same").^[eleven] διπλόος (diplóos) means "duplex" or "ii-fold". Diploid therefore ways "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped").

Smoothen botanist Eduard Strasburger coined the terms haploid and diploid in 1905.^[b] Some authors propose that Strasburger based the terms on August Weismann'due south conception of the id (or germ plasm),^{[xiv] [xv] [xvi]} hence haplo-id and diplo-id. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through William Henry Lang's 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.^{[17] [ citation needed ]}

Types of ploidy [edit]

Haploid and monoploid [edit]

A comparing of sexual reproduction in predominantly haploid organisms and predominantly diploid organisms.

1) A haploid organism is on the left and a diploid organism is on the right.
2 and iii) Haploid egg and sperm carrying the ascendant royal gene and the recessive blue gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by unproblematic mitosis of cells in the germ line.
4 and 5) Diploid sperm and egg conveying the recessive blue gene and the dominant purple gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by meiosis, which halves the number of chromosomes in the diploid germ cells.
6) The short-lived diploid state of haploid organisms, a zygote generated by the matrimony of ii haploid gametes during sexual practice.
7) The diploid zygote which has but been fertilized by the union of haploid egg and sperm during sex.
viii) Cells of the diploid construction quickly undergo meiosis to produce spores containing the meiotically halved number of chromosomes, restoring haploidy. These spores express either the mother'due south dominant gene or the father'due south recessive gene and proceed by mitotic division to build a new entirely haploid organism.
9) The diploid zygote gain by mitotic partition to build a new entirely diploid organism. These cells possess both the royal and blue genes, but only the imperial factor is expressed since information technology is dominant over the recessive blue gene.

The term haploid is used with ii distinct but related definitions. In the almost generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a gamete.^[xviii] Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a unmarried zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly one-half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (i set of chromosomes) may exist considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing ii copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animate being kingdom and is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. Merely this definition also allows for haploid gametes with more than one gear up of chromosomes. Every bit given to a higher place, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for instance, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes. These gametes might yet exist called haploid even though they are numerically diploid.

An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having a single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one fix of chromosomes.^[19] In this case, the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is said to be haploid merely if it has a single fix of chromosomes, each i not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its torso cells (somatic cells) have i set of chromosomes per cell. Past this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to the gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term monoploid is often used every bit a less ambiguous way to describe a unmarried ready of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably.

Gametes (sperm and ova) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to grade a zygote with due north pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2n chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, ane of which comes from the sperm and i from the egg, are said to be homologous. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, almost animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During meiosis, sex prison cell precursors accept their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes commonly differ genetically from i another.^{[ citation needed ]}

All plants and many fungi and algae switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is chosen alternation of generations. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal phase of their life cycle, equally are some primitive plants like mosses. More recently evolved plants, like the gymnosperms and angiosperms, spend the bulk of their life cycle in the diploid phase. Virtually animals are diploid, but male bees, wasps, and ants are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system haplodiploid.

In some cases there is evidence that the northward chromosomes in a haploid fix have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller ready of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of evidently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the monoploid number,^[20] also known as basic or cardinal number,^[21] or fundamental number.^{[22] [23]} As an case, the chromosomes of common wheat are believed to be derived from three different bequeathed species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus vii and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general n is a multiple of x. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of vii chromosomes: three sets from the egg and 3 sets from the sperm which fused to course the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2north = 610 = 42, so that the haploid number n is 21 and the monoploid number ten is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they incorporate half the genetic data of somatic cells, simply they are non monoploid, as they still contain iii complete sets of chromosomes (n = iiix).^[24]

In the example of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from iii sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the haploid number. Thus in humans, ten =n = 23.

Diploid [edit]

Diploid cells have ii homologous copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and i from the father. All or about all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing iv-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (Tympanoctomys barrerae) and golden viscacha rat (Pipanacoctomys aureus)^[25] accept been regarded equally the only known exceptions (as of 2004).^[26] However, some genetic studies have rejected whatever polyploidism in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that distension and dispersion of repetitive sequences all-time explain the large genome size of these two rodents.^[27] All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, 2n) and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) accept 23 chromosomes (n). Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are as well said to exist diploid. Examples include human foamy virus, human T-lymphotropic virus, and HIV.^[28]

Polyploidy [edit]

Polyploidy is the state where all cells take multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the bones gear up, usually iii or more than. Specific terms are triploid (iii sets), tetraploid (four sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid^[2] or septaploid^[iii] (vii sets), octoploid (viii sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (eleven sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc.^{[29] [30] [31] [32]} Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets),^[33] though Greek terminology may exist set bated for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such every bit "16-ploid").^[31] Polytene chromosomes of plants and fruit flies tin be 1024-ploid.^{[34] [35]} Ploidy of systems such as the salivary gland, elaiosome, endosperm, and trophoblast can exceed this, upwardly to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm Bombyx mori.^[36]

The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of ii separate species. In plants, this probably nigh often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling.^[37] The and so-called Brassica triangle is an example of allopolyploidy, where 3 dissimilar parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.

Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, merely rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many somatic cells are polyploid due to a process called endoreduplication, where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (jail cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the fern genus Ophioglossum, the adder'due south-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at to the lowest degree i example, well over yard.

Information technology is possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy past haploidisation.

In bacteria and archaea [edit]

Polyploidy is a characteristic of the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans ^[38] and of the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum.^[39] These two species are highly resistant to ionizing radiation and desiccation, conditions that induce DNA double-strand breaks.^{[40] [41]} This resistance appears to be due to efficient homologous recombinational repair.

Variable or indefinite ploidy [edit]

Depending on growth conditions, prokaryotes such as leaner may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly partial, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their Deoxyribonucleic acid faster than they tin can divide.

In ciliates, the macronucleus is called ampliploid, because only office of the genome is amplified.^[42]

Mixoploidy [edit]

Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, ane diploid and ane polyploid, coexist inside the aforementioned organism. Though polyploidy in humans is non viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children.^[43] There are ii types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells accept 46 chromosomes and some accept 69,^[44] and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some accept 92 chromosomes. Information technology is a major topic of cytology.

Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy [edit]

Not to be confused with haplodiploidy (where diploid and haploid individuals are different sexes).

Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed past haploidisation of polyploids, i.east., by halving the chromosome constitution.

Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid ingather plants (notably potatoes), considering pick is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can exist reconstituted from the diploids, for case past somatic fusion.

The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender^[45] to combine in i word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense,^{[46] [47]} but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids, which are homozygous and used for genetic enquiry.^[48]

Euploidy and aneuploidy [edit]

Euploidy (Greek european union, "truthful" or "even") is the state of a cell or organism having 1 or more than i ready of the same set of chromosomes, mayhap excluding the sex-determining chromosomes. For example, most human cells accept 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human jail cell with ane actress set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid karyotypes would consequentially be a multiple of the haploid number, which in humans is 23.

Aneuploidy is the state where 1 or more than individual chromosomes of a normal fix are absent or nowadays in more than their usual number of copies (excluding the absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Dissimilar euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number. In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a unmarried extra chromosome (as in Down syndrome, where affected individuals have iii copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in Turner syndrome, where affected individuals have only one sexual practice chromosome). Aneuploid karyotypes are given names with the suffix -somy (rather than -ploidy, used for euploid karyotypes), such as trisomy and monosomy.

Homoploid [edit]

Homoploid ways "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of homologous chromosomes. For example, homoploid hybridization is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with polyploid speciation.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Zygoidy and azygoidy [edit]

Zygoidy is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and tin undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid.^{[49] [50]} In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur later meiosis. In diploid organisms the azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.)

Special cases [edit]

More than ane nucleus per cell [edit]

In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a unmarried nucleus rather than in the jail cell equally a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, just in cases in which there is more one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times written report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a syncytium,^[36] though normally the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal dikaryon with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid jail cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and tin exist shuffled together.^[51]

Bequeathed ploidy levels [edit]

Information technology is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increment in the germline, which can result in polyploid offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary machinery in both plants and animals and is known as a primary commuter of speciation.^[viii] As a upshot, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as information technology presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) gear up is called the monoploid number (10), and is distinct from the haploid number (n) in the organism as it now reproduces.

Common wheat (Triticum aestivum) is an organism in which 10 and n differ. Each plant has a total of half-dozen sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of iii different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid, 2n = 6x = 42 (where the monoploid number x = 7 and the haploid number northward = 21). The gametes are haploid for their ain species, just triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, past comparison to a probable evolutionary antecedent, einkorn wheat.^{[ citation needed ]}

Tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes, 2n = 4x) is common in many plant species, and besides occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and insects. For case, species of Xenopus (African toads) form a ploidy series, featuring diploid (10. tropicalis, 2n=20), tetraploid (Ten. laevis, 4n=36), octaploid (X. wittei, 8n=72), and dodecaploid (X. ruwenzoriensis, 12n=108) species.^[52]

Over evolutionary time scales in which chromosomal polymorphisms accrue, these changes go less apparent by karyotype – for example, humans are more often than not regarded as diploid, but the 2R hypothesis has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.

Haplodiploidy [edit]

Ploidy can likewise vary between individuals of the same species or at different stages of the life wheel.^{[53] [54]} In some insects it differs by degree. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in many of the social insects, including ants, bees, and termites, certain individuals develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even every bit adults. In the Australian bulldog ant, Myrmecia pilosula, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a unmarried chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes.^[55] In Entamoeba, the ploidy level varies from 4n to fortyn in a unmarried population.^[56] Alternation of generations occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle.

Tissue-specific polyploidy [edit]

In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced just past the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation. For case, the hearts of two-year-old homo children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions get approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and ii% octaploid nuclei.^[57]

Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy [edit]

There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by unlike ploidy levels. A study comparing the karyotypes of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower take a chance of being endangered, and a twenty% greater chance of being invasive.^[58] Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability.^[59] Some studies suggest that pick is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species.^[60]

When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in aneuploid gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Considering of this, triploidy is normally exploited in agronomics to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in 3 sets of chromosomes, the condition is called triploid syndrome.

In unicellular organisms the ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis suggests that nutrient limitation should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher surface-to-volume ratio of haploids, which eases food uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-need ratio. Mable 2001 finds Saccharomyces cerevisiae to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis even so, as haploid growth is faster than diploid under high nutrient weather. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by Gerstein et al 2017. This result is also more complex: On the ane paw, under phosphorus and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal food levels or under limitation of only nitrogen, higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH – and more by and large, the idea that haploidy is selected past harsher weather condition – is cast into doubt by these results.^[61]

Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently equally 2015 was the ancient whole genome duplication in Baker's yeast proven to be allopolyploid, by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. Information technology nonetheless remains to exist explained why at that place are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of neopolyploidy and mesopolyploidy in fungal history.^[61]

Glossary of ploidy numbers [edit]

Term	Description
Ploidy number	Number of chromosome sets
Monoploid number (x)	Number of chromosomes found in a single consummate fix
Chromosome number	Total number of chromosomes in all sets combined
Zygotic number	Number of chromosomes in zygotic cells
Haploid or gametic number (n)	Number of chromosomes found in gametes
Diploid number	Chromosome number of a diploid organism
Tetraploid number	Chromosome number of a tetraploid organism

The mutual potato (Solanum tuberosum) is an example of a tetraploid organism, conveying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato institute inherits 2 sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (one-half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are singled-out in this example.

However, commercial potato crops (also as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated vegetatively (by asexual reproduction through mitosis),^[62] in which case new individuals are produced from a unmarried parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may even so be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route.

Specific examples [edit]

Examples of various ploidy levels in species with 10=11

Species	Ploidy	Number of chromosomes
Eucalyptus spp.	Diploid	iiten = 22
Banana (Musa spp.)	Triploid	310 = 33
Coffea arabica	Tetraploid	4x = 44
Sequoia sempervirens	Hexaploid	vix = 66
Opuntia ficus-indica	Octoploid	8x = 88

List of mutual organisms by chromosome count

Species	Number of chromosomes	Ploidy number
Vinegar/fruit wing	viii	2
Wheat	14, 28 or 42	2, 4 or vi
Crocodilian	32, 34, or 42	two
Apple	34, 51, or 68	2, 3 or 4
Human being	46	2
Horse	64	2
Chicken	78	2
Gilded fish	100 or more than	2 or polyploid

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Compare the etymology of tuple, from the Latin for "-fold".
2. ^ The original text in German language is as follows: "Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, dice sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen."^{[12] [13]}

References [edit]

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Sources [edit]

• Griffiths, A. J. et al. 2000. An introduction to genetic analysis, 7th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York ISBN 0-7167-3520-2

External links [edit]

Some eukaryotic genome-scale or genome size databases and other sources which may listing the ploidy levels of many organisms:

• Animal genome size database
• Plant genome size database
• Fungal genome size database
• Protist genome-scale database of Ensembl Genomes
• Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004). "Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. The states. 101 (30): 11036–11039. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10111036N. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403151101. PMC503737. PMID 15252199. (Supporting Data Set, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists)
• Chromosome number and ploidy mutations YouTube tutorial video

gutierrezpokenderyind.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidy

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